Canola Meal Feed Guide for Aquaculture

As fish life continues to be depleted from the Earth’s oceans, and the human population increases further, the reliance on farmed fish to supply consumers with high quality protein increases in importance. The aquaculture industry is striving to reduce its dependance on harvested fish by producing farmed fish instead. As Table 1 shows, the global aquaculture industry currently provides consumers with 30 million metric tonnes of high quality food from 15 million metric tonnes of marine fish.

Table 1. Fish in-fish-out ratios (FIFO) for select farmed species (million metric tonnes)¹.

¹  https://www.globalseafood.org/advocate/how-much-fish-is-consumed-in-aquaculture/

Many factors relating to the environmental impact of farmed fish are related to the feed. Changes in feeding practices offer an opportunity to reduce the impact of this sector on its global warming potential (Sherry and Koester, 2020). Increasing the use of sustainable land-based ingredients and/or re-evaluating the metrics used to assess production are a few options that could accomplish this. The fastest growth rates and the highest gain-to-feed ratios may not be the best option with respect to sustainability.

Canola meal can be used to partially replace fishmeal in diets for many farmed fish species. It has an amino acid profile that matches the requirements of many species (Albrektsen et al., 2022). As Table 2 shows, the cost of production is lower for canola meal than it is for many other protein ingredients (Kaiser et al., 2022). Thus, there are opportunities to use canola meal to support a more sustainable and profitable aquaculture industry, and additional supportive information is coming to light at a rapid pace.

Table 2. Calculated production and production costs of proteins (2019 Data)¹.

¹ Kaiser et al., 2022; ² Dried meal after oil extraction.

Canola meal is a palatable source of protein for use in aquaculture diets. In fact, soluble canola protein concentrate has successfully been used as an attractant for diets in which fish meal concentrations have been reduced. Hill et al. (2013) reported that the inclusion of 1% soluble canola protein concentrate in diets fed to sunshine bass significantly increased feed intake and weight gain. As described in Chapter 2, levels of glucosinolates in canola meal are now quite low, and they no longer impart a bitter taste to the meal as was found in some older studies.

The dietary inclusion level of canola meal is often limited by the nutrient requirements of some farmed fish species. For example, carnivorous fish have very high protein requirements and a low tolerance for carbohydrates. Omnivorous species on the other hand have a greater tolerance for dietary carbohydrates. Table 3 shows that inclusion levels may be as high as 60% in the diets of some commercially important omnivorous species but is limited to 30% or less for carnivorous species (Table 4) when growth rate is used as the primary response criterion.

Table 3. Average canola meal inclusion levels in diets of omnivorous and herbivorous fish with no compromise in performance over the standard diet (studies published since 2000).

Canola meal is a palatable source of protein for use in aquaculture diets. In fact, soluble canola protein concentrate has successfully been used as an attractant for diets in which fish meal concentrations have been reduced. Hill et al. (2013) reported that the inclusion of 1% soluble canola protein concentrate in diets fed to sunshine bass significantly increased feed intake and weight gain. As described in Chapter 2, levels of glucosinolates in canola meal are now quite low, and they no longer impart a bitter taste to the meal as was found in some older studies.

The dietary inclusion level of canola meal is often limited by the nutrient requirements of some farmed fish species. For example, carnivorous fish have very high protein requirements and a low tolerance for carbohydrates. Omnivorous species on the other hand have a greater tolerance for dietary carbohydrates. Table 3 shows that inclusion levels may be as high as 60% in the diets of some commercially important omnivorous species but is limited to 30% or less for carnivorous species (Table 4) when growth rate is used as the primary response criterion.

Table 3. Average canola meal inclusion levels in diets of omnivorous and herbivorous fish with no compromise in performance over the standard diet (studies published since 2000).

¹ Glencross et al, 2004a; ² Huang et al, 2012; ³ Hussain et al., 2020; ⁴ Veiverberg et al., 2010; Jiang et al., 2016; ⁵ Parveen et al., 2012; ⁶ Viegas et al., 2008; ⁷ Van Minh et al., 2013; ⁸ Iqbal et al., 2015; Umer and Ali, 2009; Parveen et al., 2012; Umer et al., 2011; ⁹ Booth and Allen, 2003. ¹⁰ Galdioli et al, 2002. ¹¹ Zhou et al., 2018; ¹² Yigit and Olmez, 2009, Zhou and Yue, 2010; Luo et al, 2012; Mohammadi et al., 2016; Fangfang et al., 2014; Soares et al., 2001.

Table 4. Average canola meal inclusion levels in diets of carnivorous fish with no compromise in performance over the standard diet (studies published since 2000).

¹ Burr et al., 2013; Collins, et al., 2013; ² Ngo et al., 2015; ³ Luo et al., 2012; ⁴ Lanari and D’Agaro, 2005; ⁵ Cheng et al., 2010; ⁶ Kou et al., 2015; ⁷ Thiessen et al., 2003; Thiessen et al., 2004; Yigit et al., 2012; Collins et al, 2012; Collins et al., 2013; ⁸ Erdogan and Olmez, 2009; ⁹ Galdioli et al., 2001; Soares et al., 2000 10 Webster et al., 2000.

The digestibility of protein from canola meal is high for most fish species. NRC (2011) does not list canola meal as an ingredient but lists the apparent digestibility of protein in rapeseed meal for the following species: 91% for rainbow trout, 85% for Nile/blue tilapia, and 89% for cobia. Hajen et al. (1993) determined that the digestibility of canola meal protein by chinook salmon was 85%, which was higher than the digestibility of protein from soybean meal (77%) and the same as the digestibility of soy protein isolate (84%). Protein digestibility results from studies published since 2000 are provided in Tables 5 and 6 for omnivorous and carnivorous species, respectively.

Table 5. Protein digestibility (%) of canola meal for omnivorous and herbivorous fish as determined in studies published since 2000 where no enzymes were added.

¹ Glencross et al., 2004a; ² Tibbitts et al, 2004; ³ Elescho et al., 2021; ⁴ Kitagima and Fracalossi, 2011; ⁵ Hussain et al, 2015; ⁶ Allan et al, 2000; ⁷ Borgeson et al., 2006.

Table 6. Protein digestibility (%) of canola meal for carnivorous fish as determined in studies published since 2000 where no enzymes were added.

¹ Burr et al., 2011; ² Erdogan et al., 2010; ³ Burr et al., 2011; ⁴ Ngo et al., 2015; ⁵ Zhou et al., 2004; Luo et al., 2012; ⁶ Lanari and D’Agaro, 2005; ⁷Cheng et al., 2010; ⁸ Rodrigues Olim, 2012; Olim, 2012; ⁹Mwachireya et al., 2000; Burel et al., 2000; Dalsgaard et al., 2012; Gaylord et al., 2008; Gaylord et al., 2010; Thiessen et al., 2004; Cheng and Hardy, 2002; Lee et al., 2020; ¹⁰Gaylord et al, 2004; ¹¹Wu et al, 2006; ¹²Erdogan and Olmez., 2010; ¹³Goncalves et al., 2002; Goncalves 2004; ¹⁴Mirzakhani et al., 2020.

Protein-to-energy ratios in fish diets are high compared to birds and mammals, and thus, aquaculture diets are typically higher in crude protein than are poultry and livestock diets. Diets for the carnivorous salmonids typically contain more than 40% crude protein. Diets for omnivorous or herbivorous fish like carp or tilapia typically contain 25 to 30% crude protein. The feasible inclusion rate of canola meal is below 20% when formulating practical diets for carnivorous species like salmonids because as fed canola meal contains less than 40% crude protein. However, in omnivorous or herbivorous fish, such as carp and tilapia, dietary crude protein requirements are considerably lower, and this limitation does not apply.

Tables 7 and 8 (dry matter digestibility) and Tables 9 and 10 (energy digestibility) illustrate the variability of these parameters when using canola meal in fish diets. This can be attributed in large part to the many varied species of fish that are farmed worldwide as well as varied processing systems used to manufacture the canola meal.

The energy value of canola meal will vary due to the amount of lipid that is present in the meal. Processing methods also affect the value of the meal. Burel et al. (2000) determined that the digestibility of rapeseed meal by rainbow trout was 69% for solvent-extracted meal and 89% with heat-processing, demonstrating the wide range in values possible.

Fiber is not digested to any large extent by aquaculture species. Plant fiber can be divided into two categories: soluble fiber, which increases intestinal viscosity, and insoluble fiber, which increases bulk. Canola meal contains approximately half as much soluble fiber as soybean meal (Mejicanos et al., 2016), which may be an advantage for some species. Modest amounts of insoluble fiber may improve transit time and feed intake, but large amounts result in excess bulk, again depending upon the species of fish. Reducing the fiber fraction of canola meal could enhance its value in nutrient-dense aqua feeds.

Table 7. Dry matter digestibility (%) of canola meal for omnivorous and herbivorous fish as determined in studies published since 2000 where no enzymes were added.

1 Glencross et al., 2004a; 2 Tibbetts et al, 2004; 3 Elescho et al., 2021; 4 Kitagima and Fracalossi, 2011; 5 Hussain et al, 2015. 6 Allan et al, 2000; Allan et al., 2004; 7 Bibi et al., 2020; Borgeson et al., 2006 Furura et al., 2001; Pezzato et al., 2002.

Table 8. Dry matter digestibility (%) of canola meal for carnivorous fish as determined in studies published since 2000 where no enzymes were added.

¹ Burr et al, 2011; ² Tibbetts et al., 2004; ³ Burel et al., 2000; Dalsgaard et al., 2012; ⁴ Ngo et al., 2015; ⁵ Luo et al., 2012; ⁶ Iqbal et al., 2015; ⁷ Cheng et al., 2010; ⁸ Rodrigues Olim et al., 2012; ⁹ Mwachireya et al., 2000; Burel et al., 2000; Dalsgaard et al., 2012; Lee et al., 2020; ¹⁰ Wu et al., 2006.; ¹¹ Erdogan and Olmez., 2010; ¹² Goncalves et al., 2002; Goncalves, 2004; ¹³ Mirzakhani et al., 2020.

Table 9. Energy digestibility (%) of canola meal for omnivorous fish as determined in studies published since 2000 where no enzymes were added.

¹ Glencross et al., 2004a; ² Tibbitts et al, 2004; ³ Elescho et al., 2021; ⁴ Kitagima and Fracalossi, 2011; ⁵ Hussain et al, 2015; ⁶ Allan et al, 2000; ⁷ Borgeson et al., 2006; Furura et al., 2001.

Table 10. Energy digestibility (%) of canola meal for carnivorous fish as determined in studies published since 2000 where no enzymes were added.

¹ Burr et al, 2011; ² Tibbetts et al., 2006; ³ Burr et al., 2011; ⁴ Ngo et al., 2015 ⁵ Zhou et al., 2005; 6Lanari and D’Agaro, 2005.; ⁷ Glencross et al., 2004a; ⁸ Mwachireya et al., 2000; Burel et al., 2000; Thiessen et al., 2004; Cheng and Hardy, 2002; Lee et al., 2020; ⁹ Wu et al., 2006; ¹⁰ Erdogan and Olmez., 2010; ¹¹ Goncalves et al., 2002; Goncalves 2004; ¹² Mirzakhani et al., 2020.

Canola meal is a rich source of phosphorus. Much of the phosphorus is in the form of phytic acid, which is not available to most species of farm reared fish. Because of this, many aquaculture diets are formulated to contain phytase (NRC, 2011), the enzyme necessary to cleave phosphorus from phytic acid. Research has also indicated that phytase increases the availability of other minerals, including calcium, magnesium and manganese (Cheng and Hardy, 2002; Vandenberg et al., 2011; Hussain et al., 2015), reducing the need for supplementation of these minerals. Recent research by Habib et al. (2018) showed that citric acid, like phytase, can be beneficial in releasing minerals from phytic acid.

Antinutritional Properties of Canola Meal

Like any feed ingredient, canola meal contains some molecular components that may negatively impact a variety of aquaculture species. These must be considered when formulating diets with canola meal. Canola meal contains small amounts of heat-labile (glucosinolates) and heat-stable (phytic acid, phenolic compounds, tannins, saponins and fiber) anti-nutritional factors (Chapter 2).

Glucosinolates

Glucosinolates appear to be better tolerated by many fish species (carp for example) than by swine and poultry (Bischoff, 2019; Prabu et al., 2017). Fortunately, Canadian canola meal currently contains very limited amounts of glucosinolates (3.2 μmol/g). Several publications have identified upper limits of inclusion of glucosinolates in the fish diets. The most conservative limit is set for trout, at 1.4 μmol/g of the feed (Bischoff, 2019). This would still allow for a relatively high theoretical maximum inclusion of canola meal at over 40%.

Phytic acid

Plant ingredients commonly store phosphorus in the form of phytic acid. Phytic acid added as such has been demonstrated to depress growth in many aquaculture species when total dietary levels exceed 1% of the diet. Examples are carp (Hossain and Jauncey, 1993), channel catfish (Satoh et al., 1989), rohu (Usmani and Jafri, 2002), and Atlantic salmon (Storebakken et al., 1998). Phytic acid has been found to not only reduce the availability of minerals but can likewise bind with protein and lower its digestibility.

Table 11. Evaluation of phytase inclusion in diets containing canola meal on digestibility of dry matter (DM) crude protein (CP), gross energy (E) and phosphorus (P).

¹ Calculated by regression. 

The original purpose of adding phytase to diets was to enable animals to access the majority of phytate phosphorus in plants and reduce reliance on inorganic phosphate sources, thus significantly reducing phosphorus pollution. When used in diets for fish, phytase often improves the digestibility of dry matter, crude protein and energy (Table 11) in diets containing canola meal. As a result, this is an important exogenous enzyme for the aquaculture industry.

Reduced protease production

Some species of fish may experience reduced production of endogenous enzymes when plant-based ingredients are included in the diet (Santigosa, 2008; Zheng et al., 2020), which is often associated with protease inhibitors found in plant ingredients. Protease inhibitors are less common in canola than in some other ingredients, notably soybean meal (Hussain et al., 2021; Francis et al, 2001). If these ingredients are included in diets along with canola meal, then the digestion of canola meal protein can be impaired.

The addition of proteases to the diet can supplement endogenous production. Drew et al. (2005) reported 30% and 11% improvement in dry matter and protein digestibility, respectively, with the inclusion of protease in diets for rainbow trout that contained 12% canola meal. In an ingredient substitution study, Lee et al. (2020) determined that protease improved the digestibility of dry matter, crude protein, and energy from canola meal by 24, 6 and 14%, respectively, for rainbow trout. Protein efficiency ratios were improved when protease was added to diets containing 20% and 64% canola meal for prawns (Buchanan et al., 1997).

Fiber

Soluble and insoluble fibers cannot be readily digested by fish, and they are not a normal part of their diets. While these plant components can be considered simply as dilutants for some farmed species, fiber is anti-nutritional for other species. This suggests that adding carbohydrase enzymes to aquaculture feeds could be of benefit. The addition of carbohydrase enzymes has been studied in recent times, but there are limited data available regarding canola meal. In an early feeding trial, Yigit and Olmez (2010) found no advantage to the inclusion of cellulase to diets that contained 21% or 42% canola meal for tilapia. Maas et al. (2020) saw some improvement in growth performance for tilapia provided with xylanase added to a low quality diet that contained 12% rapeseed meal. Buchanan et al. (1997) revealed that the addition of a multi- carbohydrase enzyme to a diet containing canola meal increased dry matter digestibility and growth in black tiger prawns, and Ali Zamini et al. (2014) determined that salmon benefitted from a multi-carbohydrase enzyme and observed an improved growth rate, survival and feed conversion.

Canola meal is increasingly used in aquaculture diets for species such as catfish, carp, tilapia, bass, perch, sea bream, and turbot, which all thrive on lower protein diets. While there is still much to be learned, significant inroads have been made, particularly for some species.

Tilapia

Canola meal included in diets for herbivorous tilapia, is used to partially replace fishmeal, soybean meal or both. Soares et al. (2001) provided juvenile tilapia with diets containing 0, 25, 50 or 75% canola meal, replacing protein from soybean meal. Feed to gain and protein to gain ratios did not differ between treatments. Weight gains did not decline until the 75% canola meal inclusion level was reached. Yigit and Olmez (2009) replaced up to 50% of the protein from fishmeal with protein from canola meal in 10% increments in their study. The feed conversion ratio increased with the inclusion of canola meal, and gain declined linearly at levels above 10%. There were no differences in final body composition of the fish due to the canola feeding level. All diets contained 26% soybean meal, and this level of soybean meal may have contributed to an amino acid imbalance as canola meal levels increased and fishmeal levels were reduced. In a similar study, Luo et al. (2012) replaced up to 75% of the protein from fishmeal with canola meal (up to 55% canola meal) with no decline in survival, growth rate or feed efficiency. The diets evaluated in this study contained only 12% soybean meal. There were no differences in muscle composition of the fish in this trial.

While growth rate is often the measurement used to assign value to alternative feed ingredients, replacing fishmeal with plant protein can provide significant economic advantages at suboptimal rates of gain. Recently, Kirimi et al (2020) determined that diets for tilapia in which 1/3 of the dietary protein was provided by canola meal, sunflower meal or soybean meal resulted in diets with protein scores of 76-78%, as compared to 97% for fishmeal. However, usage of the alternative proteins reduced production costs. Iqbal et al (2021b) determined that canola meal provided the best economic returns when used at 50% of the dietary protein, replacing both fishmeal and soybean meal.

Carp

At least 8 species of carp are reared for food throughout the world (Table 12). Interest in canola meal for these species is growing due to the unique amino acid profile of this ingredient (Kaiser et al., 2022).

An older study by Abbas et al. (2008) showed that canola meal could easily replace a portion of the fishmeal in the diet of three of these species without injury to the fish, but with some reduction in weight gain (Table 13). Jiang et al. (2016) determined that grass carp grew optimally with diets containing 34% canola meal, 20% soybean meal and 10% cottonseed meal and no fishmeal, provided the diets were supplemented with lysine and methionine. Digestive enzyme production was reduced when the free amino acids were omitted from the diet. Fishmeal could also be totally replaced with a combination of rapeseed meal and chlorella algae (Shi et al., 2017), suggesting that similar results might be expected with canola meal. Habib et al (2018) included phytase or citrate in canola meal diets for rohu, and found that both options improved the digestibility of calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium and magnesium, allowing lower supplementation of these minerals. Rohu given canola meal as their primary protein source had higher growth rates than those given cottonseed meal, rapeseed meal, soybean meal or fishmeal (Iqbal et al., 2015).

Table 12. Major farmed carp species.

Table 13. Evaluation of canola meal as a partial replacement for fishmeal by three carp species¹.

¹ Abbas et al., 2008.

Canola meal is an attractive alternative to fishmeal for common carp (Hussain et al. (2020). Typically, it is included in diets for these fish at levels equal to 50-55% of the diet. The researchers further noted that common carp are often reared in areas where there is some water pollution and can benefit from the polyphenolic compounds in canola meal. They determined that maintaining Brassica polyphenols at levels between 200-500 mg/kg of feed improved feed intake, diet digestibility and growth. Canola meal (Brassica napus) is rich in polyphenols such as sinapine, sinapic acid and canolol (Nandasiri et al, 2019) which have antioxidative and antibacterial properties. Thus, canola meal may provide additional advantage under suboptimal rearing conditions.

Catfish

Catfish are easily farmed in channels or ponds, and many species of catfish are used for this purpose. The most widely farmed species fall under three genera, characterized by their origin. These are shown in Table 14.

Table 14. Major farmed genera of catfish.

Perhaps due to the ease of rearing catfish, there are surprisingly few published studies regarding the effects of diet on performance parameters. In an early trial Webster et al (1997) substituted canola meal for corn and soybean meal in diets for channel catfish. As Table 15 shows, partial replacement of soybean meal by canola meal (diets 3, 4 and 5) improved performance over soybean meal alone (diet 2) for diets with up to 36% canola meal inclusion. None of the diets performed as well as the higher fishmeal diet (diet 1).

Table 15. Evaluation of mixtures of canola meal and soybean meal in diets for channel catfish ¹

¹ Webster et al., 1997.

Zhang et al. (2020) evaluated rapeseed meal as a replacement for fishmeal in diets for Asian red-tailed catfish. The meal was included at 0, 12, 24, 36 and 48% of the total diet. Final weights and weight gains did not differ from the control when up to 36% rapeseed meal was included in the diet. When all treatments were considered, there was a trend for gains to decline and intakes to increase as the levels of rapeseed meal increased. There were no differences in survival for any of the treatments. Digestive enzyme activity (pepsin, trypsin, lipase and amylase) declined with all inclusion levels of rapeseed meal.

According to Oliva-Teles et al. (2015), it is relatively easy to replace up to half of the fishmeal in diets for carnivorous fishes with alternative proteins. Using plant-based proteins to replace more than 50% of the dietary fishmeal poses problems because the digestive tracts of carnivorous species are suited to the digestion of animal proteins. Furthermore, these species have very high protein and amino acid requirements (Araujo et al., 2021), which are difficult to fulfill without the use of protein concentrates, some of which may not be well balanced for all essential amino acids. The amino acid balance of protein from canola meal is closer to fishmeal than any other vegetable protein source, and the best source to serve as a replacement for fishmeal (Enami, 2011; Kaiser et al., 2022). In that context, canola meal is suited to replace a portion of the protein in these diets, albeit a smaller portion than may be used for omnivorous fish.

Trout

The amino acid profile of canola meal/rapeseed meal has been demonstrated to be ideal as a replacement for fishmeal for rainbow trout (Slawski et al 2013) and with protein digestibility (90.9%) that is like that of fishmeal (89.2% Burel et al., 2000).

In addition to digestibility determination, a few trials have reported encouraging results concerning the use of canola meal. In one feeding trial (Shafaeipour et al., 2008) canola meal plus DL-methionine was replaced from 10 to 57% of the protein from fishmeal (5% to 30% of the feed) in diets for trout. At the end of the 16-week long feeding period, the researchers determined that there were no adverse effects of diet on growth and that canola meal had the potential to replace substantial levels of fish meal in trout diets.

Yigit et al. (2012) provided rainbow trout fry (initial weight 1.5g) with isonitrogenous diets that contained 0, 8, 16, 24 or 32% solvent extracted canola meal for 12 weeks. The canola meal replaced fishmeal and corn flour in the diets. Growth rates declined slightly with each incremental increase in canola meal but were deemed acceptable, and there were no adverse effects of canola meal on feed intake. Performance parameters obtained with the 8% and 16% inclusion levels were not statistically different from those obtained when the trout received the diet with 0% canola meal, although the values were numerically lower for weight gain and specific growth rate. The results are displayed in Table 16.

Table 16. Performance of rainbow trout fry with diets containing various levels of canola meal¹.

 ¹ Yigit et al., 2012.

In a similar experiment, Collins et al. (2012) provided rainbow trout with diets in which canola meal was included at 0, 7.5, 15, 22.5 and 30%. Much like the study by Yigit et al. (2012), there were linear declines in specific growth rate as the canola meal inclusion increased. The researchers suggested limiting the canola meal inclusion level to 15%.

Canola from brown or yellow seeded canola was included in diets for rainbow tout with an initial weight of 2.5 grams and at an inclusion level of 15% (Anderson et al., 2018). Final body weight was slightly lower with the brown seeded canola but not with the yellow seeded canola relative to the control. There were no significant differences in specific growth rate or feed efficiency for any of the treatments.

Diets incorporating up to 32% canola meal have been shown to have no detrimental effects on growth when the diets are supplemented with cellulase, phytase and pectinase (Yigit and Keser, 2016). Further studies are needed on the use of enzymes along with canola meal.

These results demonstrate that practical diets can be formulated using up to 15% canola meal to reduce the use of fishmeal in diets for rainbow trout. Higher levels might be possible with enzyme supplementation. While not a full replacement for fishmeal, inclusion of canola meal at this level would be beneficial in further improving the sustainability of these fish.

Salmon

Salmon, more so than trout, have a low tolerance for plant carbohydrates. There have been many studies investigating plant protein sources, and this has largely been conducted with soybean meal and soy protein concentrate, but there have been a few recent studies evaluating canola meal.

Drew (2004) demonstrated canola meal is a superior protein source to soybean meal for salmon as it has fewer antigenic properties and therefore less likely to cause hypersensitivity. Soybean meal and soy protein concentrates can be problematic for salmon, causing allergic reactions in the gut (Kaiser et al., 2022). Furthermore, the protein in canola meal has a higher biological value than does soybean meal (Enami, 2011).

The common safe recommendation for canola meal inclusion level is 10% (Burr et al, 2013; Collins et al, 2013), due to the fiber content of the meal. However, there are indications that greater levels may be used. In a Tasmanian feeding trial in which Australian canola meal was employed (Sajjadi and Carter, 2004) diets containing 35% canola meal were evaluated. Survival was 100% with these levels and protein, and the digestibility of the diets exceeded 90%.

Shrimp

Canola meal has been successfully used in diets for shrimp and prawns in many parts of the world. In an older study conducted in China, Lim et al. (1997) found that 15% canola meal in shrimp diets resulted in no significant performance differences relative to the control diet, but 30% and 45% inclusion levels resulted in lower growth rates and feed intake. Since then, knowledge related to the nutrient requirements of these species has been gained.

Research conducted in Mexico (Cruz-Suarez et al., 2001) revealed that canola meal can be incorporated into the diet at 30%, replacing fish meal, soybean meal and wheat, with no alteration in performance of juvenile blue shrimp. In Malaysia (Bulbul et al., 2014), researchers found that canola meal alone could be used to replace 20% of the fish meal without altering performance. The same researchers (Bulbul et al., 2016) determined that a mixture of canola meal and soybean meal (40:60) could be used to fully replace fish meal in diets for Kumura shrimp provided that an attractant was also added to the meal.

Escobar et al. (2022) provided shrimp with either a commercial fishmeal-based control diet, or diets containing a mixture (50:50) of canola meal and soybean meal (plant-protein based diets) included as 46% of the diet that was offered as is, or processed by fermentation. The protein digestibility of the diet containing the fermented protein mixture was 93.0%, comparable to the control diet (94.7%) and higher than the diet with the unfermented protein source (83.7%). Average gains were greatest for the diet containing the unfermented plant protein (1.1, 1.0 and 0.9 g/week for unfermented soy/canola, fermented soy/canola, and fishmeal, respectively), although survival rates were improved when the soy/canola mix was fermented.

Prawns

Like shrimp, prawns can grow normally with diets containing vegetable protein, provided the diets are palatable. Researchers in Australia (Buchanan et al., 1997) fed prawns diets with 0, 20 or 64% canola meal. Results indicated that an enzyme cocktail was required for the higher level of canola meal to produce growth rates equivalent to the control diet without canola meal. Suarez et al. (2009) determined that growth rate and survival rate in prawns given diets that included 18% canola meal remained equivalent to the reference diet. Six percent fishmeal was included in the test diet. Glencross et al. (2018) published digestibility values for 29 ingredients of potential use in diets for black tiger prawns, Penaeus monodon. Values for canola meal are provided in Table 17. Digestibility values for three fish meal sources are provided for comparison.

Table 17. Digestibility (%) of canola meal and three sources of fish meal for shrimp.

Biabani et al. (2016) provided prawns with a control diet that was based on fishmeal and 4 test diets, in which protein from canola meal replaced 25, 50, 75 and 100% of the protein from fishmeal. Growth rates were superior to that found for the control diet when the prawns were given diets with 25 or 50% of the protein from canola meal. Growth rates for the diets with 75 or 100% fishmeal replacement were equivalent to the control diet. The researchers concluded that up to 50% of the fishmeal protein could safely be replaced by canola meal.

Other crustaceans

Mud crabs appear to be able to readily digest canola meal. Thuong et al. (2008) determined that the dry matter and protein digestibility of canola meal were 83.5% and 87.6%, respectively, by mud crabs. This compares favorably to fishmeal (85.4% and 88.3% digestibility for dry matter and protein). Chinese mitten crabs can be given diets in which up to 40% of the fishmeal is replaced by a 50:50 mixture of canola meal and soybean meal with no loss in growth. Ren et al. (2018) notes that pectin acted as an antinutritional factor for rapeseed and canola meal, suggesting that the inclusion of a pectinase might improve the utility of canola meal in diets for the Chinese mitten crab.

Safari et al. (2014) conducted a survey of ingredients that might be included in diets for narrow clawed crayfish. The study revealed that ground canola seed was a promising ingredient for crayfish.

Canola meal can be used to produce canola protein concentrate (CPC) by the aqueous extraction of protein (Burr et al., 2013; Thiessen et al., 2004). This results in removal of antinutritional factors (mainly fiber), and produces a product with a higher protein content than canola meal, making it easier to use in formulations for species with high protein requirements. CPC contains approximately the same crude protein concentration as fishmeal with a better amino acid profile than corn gluten meal and soy protein concentrate. The ability to use CPC or rapeseed protein concentrate (RPC) to fully replace fishmeal varies with the species of fish and is possibly associated with organoleptic properties of the diets used in the studies conducted to date.

Collins et al (2012) determined that CPC had no negative effects on the growth of rainbow trout when compared to fish meal. Similarly, Slawski et al. (2012) determined that RPC could be used to fully replace fishmeal rainbow trout diets. The latter trial was repeated using CPC (Slawski et al., 2013). Canola meal replaced 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100% of the fishmeal. At the 75% replacement level, weight gain was greater than for the fishmeal control diet. However, Burr et al. (2013) determined that salmon provided with a basal diet high in plant protein ingredients could tolerate only 10% CPC as a replacement for fish meal. Twenty percent was not acceptable and resulted in lower growth rates. It is possible that attractants might be needed for some species of fish.

With the high demand for commercially reared fish and crustaceans, there is a shortage of fish oil, and this is expected to increase in the future. Replacement of fish oil with vegetable oils has been widely documented, generally with very little negative impact on growth performance of fish (Glencross and Turchini, 2011). Canola oil is unique in that the oil contains a high proportion of the monounsaturated fatty acid oleic acid.

According to Turchini et al. (2013), canola oil and rapeseed oil are the most widely used vegetable oils in diets for salmon and trout. Canola oil is highly desired due to its low levels of linoleic acid (omega 6), which helps to maintain an omega 3 to omega 6 ratio naturally found in fish. Salini et al. (2015) also found that saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids are preferentially oxidized for energy, thereby sparing long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids from oxidation. Turchini et al. (2013) replaced up to 90% of the fish oil with canola oil in diets for rainbow trout, with no loss in performance, and only minimal change to the total omega 3 to omega 6 ratio in fillets. Similarly, Karayucel, and Dernekbaşi (2010) found no differences in performance when 100% of the supplemental lipid was provided by canola oil in rainbow trout.

Another approach to using vegetable oil is to provide it in diets during the growth phase, and then provide diets high in fish oil during the final stages of growth. This allows fish to grow on the less expensive oils, and to deposit tissue lipid more reflective of fish in the final stages of growth. Izquierdo, et al. (2005) provided sea bream with vegetable oil–rich diets, then switched to fish oil for the finishing period. Canola oil fed during the growth phase, followed by fish oil in the finishing phase, allowed the sea bream to develop an ideal fatty acid profile in tissue, whereas fish fed soybean meal in the growth phase deposited significant amounts of linoleic acid that could not be adequately reduced during fish oil feeding in the finisher phase.

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