Canola Meal Feed Guide for Swine

In a meta-analysis testing the manipulation of diet to improve profitability, Wang et al. (2020) determined that the greatest capture of cost savings was accomplished by reducing dietary protein. Canola meal has an amino acid profile that is very close to ideal (Table 1) and may be used more efficiently than some other vegetable protein sources, allowing diets to be formulated with minimal protein overage. Going forward, trends in swine feeding are expected to consider not just nutrient digestibility, but also ingredient effects on factors beyond production such as manure output, greenhouse gaseous production and gut health and immunity. It is likely that canola meal will provide intrinsic benefits beyond its nutrient profile.

Canola meal is a valuable co-product that may not increase emissions when used in diets for pigs relative to other vegetable proteins. With respect to the swine feeding industry, the major source of greenhouse gas results from manure. Trabue et al. (2021) evaluated gaseous emissions from pigs given corn-based diets in which the supplemental protein was supplied by soybean meal, corn gluten meal, canola meal or poultry meal. There were no treatment differences in average daily gain or gain to feed. Likewise manure output was similar for all treatments. There were no differences in total methane or carbon dioxide production for any of the diets. Ammonia levels were lowest with the canola meal diets, followed by the poultry meal diet, and significantly less than occurred with the soybean meal and corn gluten meal diets.

An additional concern to the environment is phosphorus. It is common to add phytase to diets when either canola meal or soybean meal are used. Veum and Liu (2018) determined that no added inorganic phosphorus was required when growing and finishing swine received a canola meal-sorghum diet with added phytase. The authors concluded that this approach enhances the sustainability of the swine industry.

The effect of a feed ingredient on feed intake in pigs is difficult to objectively evaluate, given the many factors involved. Variables such as basic palatability of the ingredient, dietary inclusion level, other ingredients in the feed mix, feed energy, fiber content (bulk density), and feed mineral balance will influence feed intake. For canola meal, there are several factors with the potential to reduce feed intake, such as glucosinolates, tannins, sinapine, fiber and mineral balance, which are explained in more detail in Chapter 2 of this guide. Glucosinolates, with their bitter taste, can have a major negative influence on feed intake in pigs, as indeed they can in many animal species.

Canola meal as produced in Canada, has very low levels of glucosinolates (3.57µmol/g) and has a neutral taste. Traditional rapeseed meal can have glucosinolate levels of over 100µmol/g (see Chapter 2). Levels this high result in meal that can only be used in minimal amounts to avoid issues with feed intake. To avoid decreased feed intake, meal with such high levels needs to be used sparingly. Heyer et al. (2018) replaced 20% of the soybean meal in the control diet with solvent extracted canola meal, or the same solvent extracted canola meal that had been subjected to low, medium or high extruder intensity. Although the extrusion further reduced the glucosinolate content of the meal, there were no differences in feed intake by weaned pigs. Feed intake, weight gain and feed to gain ratio did not differ for any of the treatments, including the control. This study showed that further reduction of glucosinolates in canola meal would not benefit feed intake and that weaned pigs fed canola meal ate as much as pigs fed soybean meal.

Landero et al. (2018) conducted feed preference trials with weaned pigs given the choice of either soybean meal or canola meal. A strong preference was observed for soybean meal, which agrees with previous literature; however, when no choice was given, canola meal could be included at up to 20% in the diet without impacting feed intake or growth performance. Restrictions for inclusion levels of canola meal may remain in practice but are being continually challenged and disproven by researchers. Improper feed quality evaluation information for digestible nutrients in canola meal has resulted in some problems with poorer pig performance in the past. Current data clearly show that properly formulated diets containing canola meal support high levels of efficient growth performance. The nutritional value of canola meal for swine is being understood increasingly well. The major limitation for value and inclusion is the available energy content, especially when measured as net energy. Ultimately, the relationship between ingredient cost and nutrient content will determine the appropriate level of inclusion of canola meal in well-formulated diets.

Amino acid profile

The amino acid profile of canola meal efficiently meets the amino acid requirement of swine. Lysine is the first limiting amino acid; but, as synthetic lysine is readily available, the addition of lysine to canola meal-based diets makes them easily meet the needs of swine.

Amino acid profiles of ingredients are generally expressed as percent of lysine, with requirements expressed in the same manner. Using the recommendations of either the NRC (2012) or Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA) model (van Milgen and Dourmad, 2015), canola meal stacks up almost perfectly, and is slightly over requirements for most amino acids (Table 1, “as is” column). With lysine supplementation, the profile meets requirements with less overage (Table 1, added lysine). This shows that pigs can use amino acids from canola meal with a high efficiency.

Table 1. Ideal amino acid profile based on two models, and values for canola meal (% of Lysine).

¹ Lysine content of canola meal corrected by 9% (lysine *1.09).

Amino acid digestibility

Swine diets are routinely formulated to levels of digestible amino acids rather than total amino acids. Recent feeding trials with canola meal in starter, grower and finisher pigs, in which the diets were balanced to the same levels of digestible lysine resulted in a growth rate equivalent to that found with soybean meal as the primary protein source, even at very high inclusion levels of canola meal. This is reviewed further in the section below titled Canola Meal in Starter Diets.

Furthermore, experiments showed that amino acids in swine diets should be formulated on the basis of true, or standardized, amino acid digestibility (Nyachoti, et al., 1997). Standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of amino acids is now the preferred unit of measurement for swine (Stein et al., 2007). Using SID reliably corrects for basal endogenous losses related to the animal’s digestive process, as well as indigestibility related to the feed ingredient. Table 2 provides results from recent studies conducted to determine the standardized ileal digestibility of amino acids for solvent extracted canola meal and Table 3 shows results for expeller canola meal. While some of the references have imposed a variety of treatments, the values provided in Tables 2 and 3 are for Brassica napus canola meal as they would be available from Canadian processing plants.

Table 2. Standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of amino acids in solvent extracted canola meal for growing pigs¹.

¹ Adewole et al., 2017; Almeida et al, 2014; Berrocoso et al., 2015; Favero et al., 2014; Le et al., 2017; Kim et al., 2015; Le Thanh et al., 2019; Maison and Stein, 2014; Mejicanos and Nyachoti, 2018; Park et al., 2019; Sanjayan et al., 2014; Trindade Neto et al., 2012, Velayudhan et al., 2019

² Average of 43 values.

Table 3. Standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of amino acids in expeller canola meal for growing pigs¹.

¹ Seneviratne et al., 2011; Grageola et al., 2013; Park et al., 2019; Woyengo et al., 2016; ² Average of 3 values.

Determined energy values

Energy values published by the National Research Council (NRC, 2012) are given in Table 4 and are based on historical information, and therefore more currently determined values have been added. While there appears to be a range in determined values, this may in part be related to the method of analysis. Kim et al (2018) reviewed the methods available for calculating NE and found that the results from the samples set that was tested ranged from 1,960 to 2,233 kcal/kg as fed for canola meal.

Canola meal contains a relatively large amount of a complex carbohydrate matrix with limited digestibility. Diet formulation based on NE allows for the proper inclusion of canola meal in swine diets to not impact performance.

The energy value of expeller and cold pressed canola meal will vary with the amount of ether extract in the meal. Woyengo et al. (2016) provided the equation below to allow the adjustment of net energy values:

NE, kcal/kg = 0.700 DE + 1.61 EE + 0.48 starch 0.91 CP 0.87 ADF,

where NE = net energy, DE = digestible energy, EE = ether extract, CP = crude protein and ADF = acid detergent fiber.

Table 4. Energy values for solvent extracted canola meal, as fed basis, Kcal/kg.

¹ Calculated as ME x 0.66 (Kil et al., 2013).

Fiber and digestion

According to Kerr and Shurson (2013) fiber is a catch-all term given to the complex carbohydrates in plant material, the composition of which can change with the method of analysis. The digestibility of fiber, often assumed to be negligible, is actually quite variable, with much of the digestion occurring in the gut. The volatile fatty acids that are generated can be used to support the needs of the gut tissue. Fiber digestion per se is not often determined in swine feeding studies. However, in a recent review (Lannuzel et al., 2022), it was estimated that approximately two-thirds of the non-starch polysaccharide from canola meal was digested. While it was previously believed that increasing the fiber content of the diet reduced the proportion of the fiber digested in the hindgut, this theory was proven false (Navarro et al., 2018). Canola meal is never the sole source of fiber in diets, and the sources of fiber and their interactions need to be taken into account.

Enzymes to improve energy availability

Enzyme addition can increase the available energy in diets that include canola meal. Multi-carbohydrase enzymes have been developed and employed to extract energy from the cell wall of non-starch polysaccharides. Sanjayan et al. (2014) included multi-carbohydrase enzymes in the diets of weaned pigs fed increasing inclusions of canola meal. Growth performance was not improved, but enzyme addition did increase apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of crude protein at 20% and 25% canola meal inclusion in the experimental diets. More recently, Velayudhan et al. (2018) noted numeric increases in ATTD for DM (3.6%) and gross energy (3.3%) when a multi-carbohydrase enzyme was included in canola meal diets for lactating sows. Sows lost less weight (5.3 vs. 3.3 kg) with no increase in intake with the enzyme supplemented diet. The improvements in the above studies applied to the entire diet and might be expected to vary depending upon how much canola meal was included in the diet.

Lee et al (2018) evaluated an enzyme cocktail that contained xylanase, glucanase, cellulase, mannanase, invertase, protease, and pectinase in an in vitro system. In vitro dry matter digestion of both solvent extracted and expeller canola meal were improved by 8.7 and 9.2% respectively The advantage of using the in vitro system was that the enzymes could only act on canola meal and not other ingredients in the diet. The researchers determined that the mixture increased digestibility and decreased volatile fatty acid and gas production. This indicated that more of the canola meal was digested, and less was fermented when the enzyme mixture was added to the diet.

The lipid portion of canola meal has been shown to be highly digestible by swine. Seneviratne et al. (2011) found that the lipid component of expeller canola meal was 93.6% digested. Because canola oil is largely composed of monounsaturated fatty acids and low in saturated fatty acids, the digestibility is high.

Silva et al. (2021) determined that the inclusion of 3 percent canola oil to a corn-soybean meal diet for growing-finishing pigs increased the concentration of oleic acid, and proposed that the fatty acid contribution from canola be viewed as a means of producing pork that has greater health benefits.

The mineral and vitamin profile of canola meal has been provided in detail in Chapter 2. In addition, there have been some revealing studies conducted specifically in swine with regards to calcium and phosphorus.

Canola meal is a rich source of phosphorus. Like many oilseed meals, a large portion of the phosphorus in canola meal is bound by phytic acid. It is common practice to add phytase enzyme to improve the digestibility of phosphorus and reduce the need for addition of this nutrient to the diet. Results from three studies (Akinmusire and Adeola, 2009; Favero et al., 2014; Adhikari et al., 2016) demonstrated that phosphorus digestibility can be increased in canola meal with the use of phytase from an average of 34 to 61%. Maison et al. (2015) analyzed five samples of canola meal and determined a greater digestibility value for phosphorus of 45% with no added phytase, a value that is higher than determined from older studies. Phytase supplementation still increased phosphorus digestibility to 64%, similar to the previous findings. Veum and Liu (2018) determined that no inorganic phosphorus was needed for canola meal-sorghum diets when the diets contained added phytase.

The amount of heat applied during processing may also influence phosphorus digestibility. Lee and Nyachoti (2021) found that heat processing increased phosphorus availability with both solvent extracted and expeller canola meal.

An added benefit of phytase supplementation is the improvement in calcium digestibility. Gonzalez-Vega, et al. (2013) demonstrated that the addition of phytase enzyme increased the availability of calcium in canola meal from 47 to 70%. Similarly Adhikari et al. (2016) saw an improvement in calcium digestibility from 58% to 75%.

Meta-analyses of feeding value

Several meta-analyses have been conducted to assess the value of canola meal in diets for swine. Hansen et al. (2020) analyzed data from 37 studies involving canola meal and 0/0 rapeseed meal to determine inclusion rate limits for the meal. For weaning pigs, results were available from studies where inclusion rates were 2 to 40 percent of the diet. Overall there was a slight reduction in dry matter intake, but this did not effect average daily gain, and resulted in a slight improvement in gain to feed ratio. The range of inclusion levels for growing-finishing swine was 3.8 to 49.0% of the diet. The authors determined that the overall average daily gain was slightly lower with canola meal, but there were no differences due to level of canola meal inclusion. The authors concluded low glucosinolate canola meal and rapeseed meal can be used without adverse effects on growth performance in well-balanced diets for weanling and growing-finishing pigs.

Messad et al (2016) used meta-analysis and meta regression analysis techniques to assess the predictability of the digestibility of amino acids in oilseed meals. The researchers found dietary neutral detergent fiber (NDF) in the diet was inversely related to amino acid digestibility by swine (figure 1).

Figure 1. Impact of dietary concentration of NDF on the digestible standardized ileal methionine (dMet) content of oilseed meals in pig feed. Black: soybean meal; dark grey: rapeseed meal; light grey cottonseed meal. DM = dry matter. From Messad et al., 2016.

Glucosinolate tolerance

Glucosinolates are a main anti-nutritional factor found in canola meal for swine. Pigs are considered to be highly susceptible to glucosinolates, and this applies most to younger pigs (Bischoff, 2019). In the initial years of feeding canola meal, the maximum level of glucosinolates that pigs could tolerate in the diet was defined by several researchers. Bell (1993) proposed a maximum level in pig diets of 2.0 to 2.5µmol of glucosinolates/g of diet. Two subsequent studies supported this recommendation (Schone et al., 1997a, 1997b). In the first of these two studies, growing pigs weighing approximately 20–50 kg were fed a variety of diets containing the same levels of canola meal but varying in total glucosinolate content from 0 to 19 µmol/g (Schone et al., 1997a).

A concentration greater than 2.4 µmol/g of glucosinolates in the diet had negative effects on feed intake, growth rate and thyroid function. In the second study, the maximum safe glucosinolate level was determined at 2.0 µmol/g of diet (Schone et al., 1997b). Given that Canadian canola meal contains, on average, 3.6 µmol/g of glucosinolates, this would correspond to a maximum canola meal inclusion level of 55 to 69% in growing pig diets, a value greater than necessary for commercial formulation to meet amino acid requirements for a cereal-based diet. Recent studies have demonstrated that grower-finisher pigs will perform well on diets containing up to 30% canola meal (Smit et al., 2014a), and starter pigs perform well with diets containing 40% canola meal (Parr et al., 2015). The maximum tolerable concentration of glucosinolates in swine diets remains of interest, but at the current levels of glucosinolates in canola meal, there are no limitations for inclusion in grower-finisher diets.

Canola meal in starter diets

Recent research has shown that canola meal can be a valuable ingredient for inclusion in diets for weanling pigs. Landero et al. (2011) fed canola meal to weaned pigs with an average initial weight of 8.1 kg at inclusion levels of up to 200 g/kg without negatively impacting performance. This was demonstrated again in 2014 by Sanjayan et al., in a study where canola meal was included at 25% of the diet for weaned pigs (initial body weight of 7.26 kg), with highly acceptable performance results after the first week of the trial. To determine if the grain source included in the canola meal diet might make a difference, Mejicanos et al. (2017) provided diets to piglets (starting weight 6.7 kg on average) with 20% soybean meal compared to 20% canola meal and either wheat or corn as the primary grain. Performance of pigs with canola meal diets equaled that of soybean meal diets. The main difference in these three studies, compared to the earlier work, is that researchers formulated diets based on NE and SID amino acids.

Wang et al. (2017) fed newly weaned pigs with diets containing 20% canola meal. The four sources of canola meal tested were selected to show differences in quality characteristics as might occur with differing extremes in growing season. There were differences in apparent total tract digestibility between the soybean meal and canola meal diets, but no differences in digestibility between the four canola meal diets.

In another study, Parr et al. (2015) provided piglets with diets containing 10, 20, 30 or 40% canola meal, replacing soybean meal in the diets. There was a linear increase in gain to feed ratio as the canola meal inclusion increased, associated with no change in average daily gain, and a linear decrease in intake as canola meal levels were increased. This important study shows that, with correct diet formulation, up to 40% canola meal can be included in starter diets for piglets. Table 5 provides comparisons between canola meal and soybean meal as determined in recent studies. In general, there were few statistically significant treatment effects on average daily gain (ADG) and gain per unit of feed.

Some of the differences in performance might be attributed to lower energy content in the canola meal diets. Kim et al. (2020) determined that pigs less than 20 kg are unable to adjust feed intake in response to dietary net energy density regardless of diet composition.

Table 5. Studies evaluating canola meal in starter diets as compared to soybean meal control diets.

Canola meal in growing finishing diets

Table 6 shows results from three growing-finishing studies. There were no differences in performance in the two studies in which canola meal was compared to soybean meal. Recently Smit et al. (2018) compared solvent extracted canola meal to expeller soybean meal and saw greater rates of gain and gain to feed ratio with the expeller soybean meal diet. The authors noted that the grower diet, containing 25% canola meal was abruptly introduced to the pigs, and they suffered reduced feed intakes for a short period afterwards. Feed intake did rebound, however gains and feed to gain ratio remained significantly different. If pigs are to receive an abrupt change in diet to very high levels of canola meal, it might be necessary to make the changes in stages.

Table 6. Studies evaluating canola meal in grow-finish diets as compared to soybean meal control diets.

¹ The control diet was based on expeller soybean meal.

Tropical climate grow-finish feeding trials

Three feeding trials were conducted in three Mexican states — Nuevo Leon, Sonora and Michoacan (Hickling, 1996). The objective was to replicate the performance found in previously conducted Canadian feeding trials (Tables 7 and 8), but using Mexican ingredients (two of the feed trials used sorghum as the grain base in the diet and one trial used corn) and Mexican conditions (environment, pig genetics and management). Also, the canola meal used in the trials was produced from Canadian canola seed by Mexican oilseed processors. The design was very similar to the Canadian trials. Three dietary treatments were used: a control, a low canola meal diet and a high canola meal diet. The diets were balanced for minimum digestible amino acids, ideal protein and equal energy levels. The diets and results by growing phase are shown in Table 9. As with the temperate climate results, equivalent growth, feed efficiency and carcass quality performance were observed in all three dietary treatments (Table 10). Performance between locations varied due mainly to pig genetics and seasonal effects.

Canola meal in diets for sows

Early studies showed that canola meal is readily accepted in diets for sows and gilts. Flipot and Dufour (1977) found no difference in reproductive performance between sows fed diets with or without 10% added canola meal. Lee et al. (1985) found no significant difference in reproductive performance of gilts through one litter. Studies at the University of Alberta (Lewis et al., 1978) have shown no difference in reproductive performance of gilts through two reproductive cycles when fed diets containing up to 12% canola meal. Other studies indicated that levels of 20% canola meal did not affect performance of lactating sows (King et al., 2001). These results suggest that canola meal can be the main supplemental protein source in gilt and sow diets.

Table 7. Canadian feeding trial results: Average performance of growing pigs (20-60 kg) and finishing pigs (60-100 kg) fed diets supplemented with soybean meal (SBM) or two levels of canola meal (CM)¹.

¹ Hickling, 1994.

Table 8. Canadian Feeding trial Results: Overall performance of growing-finishing pigs (20-100 kg) fed diets supplemented with soybean meal (SBM) or two levels of canola meal (CM)¹.

¹ Hickling, 1994.

Table 9. Tropical feeding trial results: Average performance of growing pigs (20-60 kg) and finishing pigs (60-100 kg) fed diets supplemented with soybean meal (SBM) or two levels of canola meal (CM)¹.

¹ Hickling, 1996.

Table 10. Tropical feeding trial results: Overall performance of growing-finishing pigs (20-100 kg) fed diets supplemented with soybean meal (SBM) or two levels of canola meal (CM) ¹.

¹ Hickling, 1996

More recently, Velayudhan and Nyachoti (2017) provided sows with diets containing 0, 15 or 30% canola meal from the time they were moved to the farrowing room until weaning at 21 days of lactation. The researchers determined that there were no effects of treatment on body weight change or change in backfat thickness, and that both piglet growth and milk composition were not influenced by the diets. There were likewise no differences in the weaning to estrus interval. The researchers concluded that up to 30% canola meal can be included in diets for sows with no loss in performance by sows or their litters. A follow up study (Velayudhan et al., 2018) confirmed that sow performance was optimal when up to 30% canola meal was included in the diet.

In another recent study (Liu et al., 2018) sows were allocated diets that replaced 0, 50 or 100% of soybean meal in the diet starting from day 7 of gestation through to weaning. The highest level of canola meal was 23.3% of the gestation diet, and 35.1% in the lactation diet. Piglet survival was significantly greater with the diets containing canola meal, but the weaning to estrus interval was slightly higher with the highest canola meal diet than with the control diet (Table 11).

Table 11. Evaluation of canola meal in diets for sows¹.

 ¹ Liu et al., 2018.

As would be expected, there is no loss in performance when pigs receive expeller canola meal. Seneviratne et al. (2011) provided weanling pigs with diets enriched with 15% canola meal in exchange for 15% soybean meal (Table 12). There were no differences in ADG or gain to feed ratio in that study. Landero et al., 2012 feed diets containing 5, 10, 15 and 20% canola meal, substituted for soybean meal to pigs, starting at 26 days of age and continuing until 54 days of age. There were no differences in performance for any of the treatments. Diets were formulated to the same NE and SID levels. Apparent total tract digestibility of protein and energy declined linearly as the inclusion level of the canola meal increased.

Table 12. Studies evaluating expeller canola meal in starter diets as compared to soybean meal control diets.

Canola oil is routinely fed to pigs at all life stages. Crude canola oil is often an economical energy source as well as a dust suppressant in the feed. Canola seed is also fed as a protein and energy source, although it is usually limited to 10% dietary inclusion, since higher levels will result in softer fat in the carcass (Kracht, et al., 1996). Canola seed should be ground before feeding. It can effectively be fed raw, although heat treatment may prove beneficial as long as excessive heat is not used during processing, which will reduce amino acid digestibility. A nutrient analysis should also be conducted on canola seed, as it may be seed that is not suitable for canola processors. Montoya and Leterme (2010) estimated an NE content of full-fat canola seeds of 3.56 Mcal/kg (DM basis) but noted a possible underestimation due to a demonstrated reduction in feed intake and performance when dietary inclusion levels exceeded ten percent.

There is significant support for using canola meal to maintain gut health in swine. Portions of the fiber are selectively fermented in the gut thereby providing changes in the composition and activity of the gastrointestinal microbiota. Termed prebiotics, these components confer health benefits, and help the gut withstand pathogenic challenges. Additionally, compounds derived from the breakdown of glucosinolates can serve as antibacterial and antifungal agents (Dufour et al., 2015).

Research with lactating sows showed that gut bacteria profile was more favorable by yielding a greater proportion of lactic acid producing bacteria with a canola meal diet than a soybean meal diet (Velayudhan et al., 2018). Similarly, canola meal when used to replace soybean meal, increased the relative abundance of Lactobacillus and Enterococcus in nursery pigs (Mejicanos et al., 2017).

Since then, research conducted at North Dakota State University showed that canola meal was beneficial for weanling piglets (Hong et al., 2020). When included in the starter feed at 20% of the diet, gut microbial composition was improved, and there was a reduced inflammatory response. In a follow-up experiment, the researchers determined that piglets receiving starter feed with canola meal were better able to fight an E. coli infection than those receiving a soybean meal diet (Hong et al., 2021). The challenge was administered on day 3 of the study, and the trial was terminated on day 20. As Table 13 shows, weanling pigs receiving the soybean meal diet gained 67% as much as the pigs receiving antibiotics. In contrast, the inclusion of 20% canola meal in exchange for part of the soybean meal allowed the pigs to gain 82% of the amount gained by the antibiotic regimen. The gain resulted from greater feed intake with the canola meal diet. Figure 2 shows that the advantage provided by the canola meal was consistent for the term of the study.

Table 13. Evaluation of growth parameters in weaned piglets receiving starter feed and an E. coli challenge (Hong et al., 2021).

Figure 2. Weekly average daily gains found in the challenge study (NC= negative control, PC= positive control, CM=canola meal)

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